Home  ›  Chineese Website Containing Guide to Unix Using Linux Review Questions Answers

Chineese Website Containing Guide to Unix Using Linux Review Questions Answers

Written By sábado, 16 de abril de 2022 Add Comment Edit

Family of Unix-like operating systems

Linux
Tux the penguin

Tux the penguin, mascot of Linux[1]

Developer Community contributors
Linus Torvalds
Written in C, assembly languages, and others
OS family Unix-like
Working state Electric current
Source model Open source
Initial release September 17, 1991; 30 years ago  (1991-09-17)
Repository git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/torvalds/linux.git/
Marketing target Cloud computing, embedded devices, mainframe computers, mobile devices, personal computers, servers, supercomputers
Available in Multilingual
Platforms Blastoff, ARC, ARM, C6x, C-Heaven, H8/300, Hexagon, IA-64, m68k, Microblaze, MIPS, Nios Two, OpenRISC, PA-RISC, PowerPC, RISC-V, s390, SuperH, SPARC, x86, Xtensa
Kernel type Monolithic
Userland GNU[a], BusyBox[b]
Default
user interface
  • Unix vanquish (CLI)
  • Most distributions include a desktop environment (GUI)
License GPLv2[9] and others (the name "Linux" is a trademark[c])
Official website www.kernel.org
Articles in the serial
Linux kernel
Linux distribution

Linux ( LEE-nuuks or LIN-uuks)[11] is a family of open-source Unix-like operating systems based on the Linux kernel,[12] an operating system kernel start released on September 17, 1991, by Linus Torvalds.[13] [14] [fifteen] Linux is typically packaged in a Linux distribution.

Distributions include the Linux kernel and supporting system software and libraries, many of which are provided by the GNU Projection. Many Linux distributions use the give-and-take "Linux" in their name, but the Free Software Foundation uses the name "GNU/Linux" to emphasize the importance of GNU software, causing some controversy.[16] [17]

Popular Linux distributions[18] [19] [xx] include Debian, Fedora Linux, and Ubuntu. Commercial distributions include Red Hat Enterprise Linux and SUSE Linux Enterprise. Desktop Linux distributions include a windowing system such every bit X11 or Wayland, and a desktop surround such as GNOME or KDE Plasma. Distributions intended for servers may omit graphics altogether, or include a solution stack such as LAMP. Because Linux is freely redistributable, anyone may create a distribution for any purpose.[21]

Linux was originally developed for personal computers based on the Intel x86 architecture, but has since been ported to more platforms than any other operating system.[22] Because of the dominance of the Linux-based Android on smartphones, Linux besides has the largest installed base of operations of all full general-purpose operating systems.[23] [24] [25] [26] Although Linux is used by only around 2.3 per centum of desktop computers,[27] [28] the Chromebook, which runs the Linux kernel-based Chrome Os, dominates the Us Yard–12 education market place and represents almost twenty percent of sub-$300 notebook sales in the US.[29] Linux is the leading operating system on servers (over 96.4% of the tiptop 1 million web servers' operating systems are Linux),[thirty] leads other big iron systems such every bit mainframe computers, and is the only OS used on TOP500 supercomputers (since November 2017, having gradually eliminated all competitors).[31] [32] [33]

Linux also runs on embedded systems, i.e. devices whose operating system is typically built into the firmware and is highly tailored to the system. This includes routers, automation controls, smart home engineering, televisions (Samsung and LG Smart TVs apply Tizen and WebOS, respectively),[34] [35] [36] automobiles (for example, Tesla, Audi, Mercedes-Benz, Hyundai, and Toyota all rely on Linux),[37] digital video recorders, video game consoles, and smartwatches.[38] The Falcon 9'due south and the Dragon two'south avionics apply a customized version of Linux.[39]

Linux is 1 of the most prominent examples of free and open-source software collaboration. The source code may be used, modified and distributed commercially or non-commercially by anyone under the terms of its respective licenses, such as the GNU General Public License.[21]

History [edit]

Precursors [edit]

The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in 1969, at AT&T's Bell Labs, in the U.s.a. past Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna.[forty] Showtime released in 1971, Unix was written entirely in assembly language, as was common practice at the time. In 1973 in a key, pioneering approach, it was rewritten in the C programming language by Dennis Ritchie (with the exception of some hardware and I/O routines). The availability of a high-level linguistic communication implementation of Unix made its porting to dissimilar computer platforms easier.[41]

Due to an earlier antitrust case forbidding it from entering the computer business organisation, AT&T was required to license the operating organisation'south source code to anyone who asked. As a effect, Unix grew rapidly and became widely adopted past academic institutions and businesses. In 1984, AT&T divested itself of Bell Labs; freed of the legal obligation requiring complimentary licensing, Bell Labs began selling Unix as a proprietary product, where users were not legally allowed to modify Unix.

The GNU Project, started in 1983 by Richard Stallman, had the goal of creating a "consummate Unix-uniform software system" composed entirely of free software. Piece of work began in 1984.[42] Later, in 1985, Stallman started the Free Software Foundation and wrote the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL) in 1989. By the early 1990s, many of the programs required in an operating organisation (such as libraries, compilers, text editors, a command-line beat, and a windowing arrangement) were completed, although depression-level elements such as device drivers, daemons, and the kernel, called GNU Hurd, were stalled and incomplete.[43]

MINIX was created by Andrew S. Tanenbaum, a estimator science professor, and released in 1987 every bit a minimal Unix-like operating organisation targeted at students and others who wanted to learn operating organisation principles. Although the complete source code of MINIX was freely available, the licensing terms prevented it from being gratuitous software until the licensing changed in April 2000.[44]

Although non released until 1992, due to legal complications, evolution of 386BSD, from which NetBSD, OpenBSD and FreeBSD descended, predated that of Linux.

Linus Torvalds has stated on separate occasions that if the GNU kernel or 386BSD had been available at the time (1991), he probably would not have created Linux.[45] [46]

Creation [edit]

In 1991, while attending the University of Helsinki, Torvalds became curious nigh operating systems.[47] Frustrated past the licensing of MINIX, which at the time limited it to educational use only,[44] he began to piece of work on his own operating arrangement kernel, which somewhen became the Linux kernel.

Torvalds began the evolution of the Linux kernel on MINIX and applications written for MINIX were also used on Linux. Later, Linux matured and further Linux kernel development took place on Linux systems.[48] GNU applications also replaced all MINIX components, considering it was advantageous to use the freely available lawmaking from the GNU Project with the fledgling operating organization; code licensed nether the GNU GPL can be reused in other calculator programs as long equally they besides are released under the same or a compatible license. Torvalds initiated a switch from his original license, which prohibited commercial redistribution, to the GNU GPL.[49] Developers worked to integrate GNU components with the Linux kernel, making a fully functional and free operating system.[50]

Naming [edit]

5.25-inch floppy disks belongings a very early version of Linux

Linus Torvalds had wanted to call his invention "Freax", a portmanteau of "free", "freak", and "x" (equally an innuendo to Unix). During the start of his work on the system, some of the projection'south makefiles included the name "Freax" for virtually half a twelvemonth. Initially, Torvalds considered the name "Linux" but dismissed information technology every bit also egotistical.[51]

To facilitate development, the files were uploaded to the FTP server (ftp.funet.fi) of FUNET in September 1991. Ari Lemmke, Torvalds' coworker at the Helsinki University of Technology (HUT) who was ane of the volunteer administrators for the FTP server at the fourth dimension, did not think that "Freax" was a expert proper noun, and then he named the project "Linux" on the server without consulting Torvalds.[51] Later, however, Torvalds consented to "Linux".

Co-ordinate to a newsgroup postal service by Torvalds,[eleven] the give-and-take "Linux" should exist pronounced ( LIN-uuks) with a brusk 'i' as in 'print' and 'u' as in 'put'. To farther demonstrate how the word "Linux" should be pronounced, he included an audio guide ( audio speaker icon listen(help·info) ) with the kernel source code.[52] However, in this recording, he pronounces 'Linux' ( LEEN-uuks) with a short but shut front unrounded vowel.

Commercial and popular uptake [edit]

Ubuntu, a popular Linux distribution

Adoption of Linux in production environments, rather than being used but past hobbyists, started to accept off starting time in the mid-1990s in the supercomputing community, where organizations such every bit NASA started to supplant their increasingly expensive machines with clusters of inexpensive commodity computers running Linux. Commercial use began when Dell and IBM, followed by Hewlett-Packard, started offering Linux support to escape Microsoft's monopoly in the desktop operating system market.[53]

Today, Linux systems are used throughout calculating, from embedded systems to most all supercomputers,[33] [54] and accept secured a identify in server installations such equally the popular LAMP application stack. Utilise of Linux distributions in home and enterprise desktops has been growing.[55] [56] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61] Linux distributions have also get pop in the netbook market, with many devices shipping with customized Linux distributions installed, and Google releasing their own Chrome Os designed for netbooks.

Linux'south greatest success in the consumer marketplace is perhaps the mobile device market, with Android being the ascendant operating system on smartphones and very pop on tablets and, more than recently, on wearables. Linux gaming is besides on the rise with Valve showing its support for Linux and rolling out SteamOS, its own gaming-oriented Linux distribution. Linux distributions have also gained popularity with various local and national governments, such as the federal government of Brazil.[62]

Electric current development [edit]

Greg Kroah-Hartman is the lead maintainer for the Linux kernel and guides its development.[63] William John Sullivan is the executive director of the Free Software Foundation,[64] which in turn supports the GNU components.[65] Finally, individuals and corporations develop third-party non-GNU components. These third-political party components comprise a vast trunk of piece of work and may include both kernel modules and user applications and libraries.

Linux vendors and communities combine and distribute the kernel, GNU components, and non-GNU components, with additional package management software in the grade of Linux distributions.

Design [edit]

Many open up source developers agree that the Linux kernel was not designed simply rather evolved through natural selection. Torvalds considers that although the design of Unix served equally a scaffolding, "Linux grew with a lot of mutations – and because the mutations were less than random, they were faster and more directed than alpha-particles in DNA."[66] Eric South. Raymond considers Linux'southward revolutionary aspects to be social, not technical: before Linux, complex software was designed carefully by small groups, merely "Linux evolved in a completely different way. From nearly the beginning, it was rather casually hacked on by huge numbers of volunteers coordinating only through the Internet. Quality was maintained non past rigid standards or autocracy but by the naively simple strategy of releasing every week and getting feedback from hundreds of users inside days, creating a sort of rapid Darwinian selection on the mutations introduced by developers."[67] Bryan Cantrill, an engineer of a competing OS, agrees that "Linux wasn't designed, it evolved", only considers this to exist a limitation, proposing that some features, especially those related to security,[68] cannot be evolved into, "this is non a biological organization at the cease of the day, it's a software system."[69] A Linux-based organisation is a modular Unix-like operating system, deriving much of its bones design from principles established in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s. Such a system uses a monolithic kernel, the Linux kernel, which handles procedure control, networking, access to the peripherals, and file systems. Device drivers are either integrated directly with the kernel, or added every bit modules that are loaded while the system is running.[lxx]

The GNU userland is a key part of most systems based on the Linux kernel, with Android being the notable exception. The Project'south implementation of the C library works equally a wrapper for the system calls of the Linux kernel necessary to the kernel-userspace interface, the toolchain is a broad drove of programming tools vital to Linux development (including the compilers used to build the Linux kernel itself), and the coreutils implement many bones Unix tools. The project also develops Bash, a popular CLI shell. The graphical user interface (or GUI) used past most Linux systems is built on top of an implementation of the X Window Arrangement.[71] More recently, the Linux community seeks to advance to Wayland as the new display server protocol in identify of X11. Many other open-source software projects contribute to Linux systems.

Various layers within Linux, also showing separation betwixt the userland and kernel space
User style User applications bash, LibreOffice, GIMP, Blender, 0 A.D., Mozilla Firefox, ...
System components init daemon:
OpenRC, runit, systemd... 		System daemons:
polkitd, smbd, sshd, udevd... 		Window manager:
X11, Wayland, SurfaceFlinger (Android) 		Graphics:
Mesa, AMD Goad, ... 		Other libraries:
GTK, Qt, EFL, SDL, SFML, FLTK, GNUstep, ...
C standard library fopen, execv, malloc, memcpy, localtime, pthread_create... (up to 2000 subroutines)
glibc aims to exist fast, musl and uClibc target embedded systems, bionic written for Android, etc. All aim to be POSIX/SUS-compatible.
Kernel fashion Linux kernel stat, splice, dup, read, open, ioctl, write, mmap, close, exit, etc. (well-nigh 380 system calls)
The Linux kernel Organisation Call Interface (SCI), aims to be POSIX/SUS-compatible[72]
Process scheduling
subsystem 		IPC
subsystem 		Memory management
subsystem 		Virtual files
subsystem 		Network
subsystem
Other components: ALSA, DRI, evdev, klibc, LVM, device mapper, Linux Network Scheduler, Netfilter
Linux Security Modules: SELinux, TOMOYO, AppArmor, Smack
Hardware (CPU, main memory, data storage devices, etc.)

Installed components of a Linux arrangement include the following:[71] [73]

  • A bootloader, for example GNU Grub, LILO, SYSLINUX or systemd-kick. This is a plan that loads the Linux kernel into the computer's main retention, past being executed by the computer when it is turned on and later the firmware initialization is performed.
  • An init plan, such as the traditional sysvinit and the newer systemd, OpenRC and Upstart. This is the outset process launched by the Linux kernel, and is at the root of the procedure tree: in other terms, all processes are launched through init. It starts processes such as system services and login prompts (whether graphical or in terminal mode).
  • Software libraries, which contain lawmaking that can exist used by running processes. On Linux systems using ELF-format executable files, the dynamic linker that manages the apply of dynamic libraries is known as ld-linux.so. If the organisation is gear up up for the user to compile software themselves, header files will besides be included to describe the interface of installed libraries. Besides the almost commonly used software library on Linux systems, the GNU C Library (glibc), at that place are numerous other libraries, such as SDL and Mesa.
    • C standard library is the library needed to run C programs on a computer system, with the GNU C Library being the standard. For embedded systems, alternatives such as the musl, EGLIBC (a glibc fork in one case used by Debian) and uClibc (which was designed for uClinux) have been developed, although the last two are no longer maintained. Android uses its ain C library, Bionic.
  • Basic Unix commands, with GNU coreutils being the standard implementation. Alternatives be for embedded systems, such equally the copyleft BusyBox, and the BSD-licensed Toybox.
  • Widget toolkits are the libraries used to build graphical user interfaces (GUIs) for software applications. Numerous widget toolkits are available, including GTK and Ataxia adult past the GNOME project, Qt adult by the Qt Project and led past The Qt Company, and Enlightenment Foundation Libraries (EFL) developed primarily past the Enlightenment team.
  • A parcel management arrangement, such as dpkg and RPM. Alternatively packages can be compiled from binary or source tarballs.
  • User interface programs such as command shells or windowing environments.

User interface [edit]

The user interface, also known equally the vanquish, is either a control-line interface (CLI), a graphical user interface (GUI), or controls attached to the associated hardware, which is common for embedded systems. For desktop systems, the default user interface is ordinarily graphical, although the CLI is commonly bachelor through last emulator windows or on a split virtual panel.

CLI shells are text-based user interfaces, which apply text for both input and output. The dominant shell used in Linux is the Bourne-Over again Shell (bash), originally adult for the GNU project. Most low-level Linux components, including diverse parts of the userland, use the CLI exclusively. The CLI is particularly suited for automation of repetitive or delayed tasks and provides very unproblematic inter-process communication.

On desktop systems, the most popular user interfaces are the GUI shells, packaged together with all-encompassing desktop environments, such as KDE Plasma, GNOME, MATE, Cinnamon, LXDE, Pantheon and Xfce, though a diversity of additional user interfaces exist. About popular user interfaces are based on the Ten Window System, often but called "X". It provides network transparency and permits a graphical application running on i system to be displayed on another where a user may interact with the application; however, certain extensions of the 10 Window System are not capable of working over the network.[74] Several 10 display servers exist, with the reference implementation, X.Org Server, being the most popular.

Server distributions might provide a command-line interface for developers and administrators, but provide a custom interface towards end-users, designed for the use-example of the system. This custom interface is accessed through a client that resides on some other system, not necessarily Linux based.

Several types of window managers exist for X11, including tiling, dynamic, stacking and compositing. Window managers provide means to control the placement and appearance of individual awarding windows, and interact with the X Window System. Simpler X window managers such every bit dwm, ratpoison, i3wm, or herbstluftwm provide a minimalist functionality, while more elaborate window managers such equally FVWM, Enlightenment or Window Maker provide more than features such as a born taskbar and themes, but are even so lightweight when compared to desktop environments. Desktop environments include window managers as part of their standard installations, such as Mutter (GNOME), KWin (KDE) or Xfwm (xfce), although users may cull to use a unlike window manager if preferred.

Wayland is a display server protocol intended as a replacement for the X11 protocol; equally of 2014[update], information technology has non received wider adoption. Unlike X11, Wayland does not need an external window manager and compositing manager. Therefore, a Wayland compositor takes the part of the display server, window manager and compositing manager. Weston is the reference implementation of Wayland, while GNOME's Complain and KDE's KWin are beingness ported to Wayland as standalone display servers. Enlightenment has already been successfully ported since version 19.[75]

Video input infrastructure [edit]

Linux currently has two modern kernel-userspace APIs for treatment video input devices: V4L2 API for video streams and radio, and DVB API for digital Tv reception.[76]

Due to the complexity and diverseness of different devices, and due to the large number of formats and standards handled by those APIs, this infrastructure needs to evolve to better fit other devices. As well, a good userspace device library is the central of the success for having userspace applications to be able to work with all formats supported by those devices.[77] [78]

Evolution [edit]

Simplified history of Unix-like operating systems. Linux shares similar compages and concepts (equally part of the POSIX standard) but does not share not-free source code with the original Unix or MINIX.

The primary difference between Linux and many other popular gimmicky operating systems is that the Linux kernel and other components are free and open-source software. Linux is not the only such operating system, although information technology is by far the most widely used.[79] Some costless and open-source software licenses are based on the principle of copyleft, a kind of reciprocity: whatever work derived from a copyleft piece of software must also be copyleft itself. The most common gratuitous software license, the GNU Full general Public License (GPL), is a form of copyleft, and is used for the Linux kernel and many of the components from the GNU Projection.[80]

Linux-based distributions are intended past developers for interoperability with other operating systems and established computing standards. Linux systems adhere to POSIX,[81] SUS,[82] LSB, ISO, and ANSI standards where possible, although to date but one Linux distribution has been POSIX.1 certified, Linux-FT.[83] [84]

Costless software projects, although developed through collaboration, are often produced independently of each other. The fact that the software licenses explicitly permit redistribution, even so, provides a basis for larger-scale projects that collect the software produced by stand up-lone projects and go far available all at once in the course of a Linux distribution.

Many Linux distributions manage a remote collection of system software and application software packages available for download and installation through a network connexion. This allows users to adapt the operating system to their specific needs. Distributions are maintained by individuals, loose-knit teams, volunteer organizations, and commercial entities. A distribution is responsible for the default configuration of the installed Linux kernel, general arrangement security, and more generally integration of the different software packages into a coherent whole. Distributions typically utilize a package managing director such as apt, yum, zypper, pacman or portage to install, remove, and update all of a arrangement's software from one central location.[85]

[edit]

A distribution is largely driven by its developer and user communities. Some vendors develop and fund their distributions on a volunteer ground, Debian being a well-known instance. Others maintain a customs version of their commercial distributions, as Red Hat does with Fedora, and SUSE does with openSUSE.[86] [87]

In many cities and regions, local associations known as Linux User Groups (LUGs) seek to promote their preferred distribution and by extension costless software. They agree meetings and provide free demonstrations, training, technical support, and operating system installation to new users. Many Internet communities also provide support to Linux users and developers. Most distributions and gratuitous software / open-source projects have IRC chatrooms or newsgroups. Online forums are some other means for support, with notable examples being LinuxQuestions.org and the various distribution specific back up and community forums, such as ones for Ubuntu, Fedora, and Gentoo. Linux distributions host mailing lists; usually there volition be a specific topic such as usage or evolution for a given listing.

There are several engineering websites with a Linux focus. Print magazines on Linux often bundle embrace disks that carry software or fifty-fifty consummate Linux distributions.[88] [89]

Although Linux distributions are generally available without charge, several large corporations sell, back up, and contribute to the development of the components of the system and of gratis software. An assay of the Linux kernel in 2017 showed that well over 85% of the code developed past programmers who are beingness paid for their work, leaving about viii.ii% to unpaid developers and four.i% unclassified.[ninety] Some of the major corporations that provide contributions include Intel, Samsung, Google, AMD, Oracle and Facebook.[91] A number of corporations, notably Red Chapeau, Approved and SUSE, have built a meaning business around Linux distributions.

The free software licenses, on which the various software packages of a distribution built on the Linux kernel are based, explicitly accommodate and encourage commercialization; the relationship betwixt a Linux distribution as a whole and individual vendors may be seen as symbiotic. One mutual business model of commercial suppliers is charging for support, peculiarly for business users. A number of companies also offering a specialized business version of their distribution, which adds proprietary support packages and tools to administer college numbers of installations or to simplify administrative tasks.

Another business model is to requite away the software to sell hardware. This used to be the norm in the computer manufacture, with operating systems such as CP/Chiliad, Apple tree DOS and versions of Mac OS prior to vii.half dozen freely copyable (but not modifiable). As computer hardware standardized throughout the 1980s, it became more hard for hardware manufacturers to profit from this tactic, as the OS would run on whatever manufacturer's figurer that shared the same architecture.

Programming on Linux [edit]

Most programming languages support Linux either directly or through third-party customs based ports.[92] The original development tools used for building both Linux applications and operating system programs are found within the GNU toolchain, which includes the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) and the GNU Build Organization. Among others, GCC provides compilers for Ada, C, C++, Become and Fortran. Many programming languages accept a cross-platform reference implementation that supports Linux, for example PHP, Perl, Cherry-red, Python, Java, Go, Rust and Haskell. Kickoff released in 2003, the LLVM projection provides an alternative cross-platform open-source compiler for many languages. Proprietary compilers for Linux include the Intel C++ Compiler, Sun Studio, and IBM Forty C/C++ Compiler. BASIC in the class of Visual Basic is supported in such forms every bit Gambas, FreeBASIC, and XBasic, and in terms of terminal programming or QuickBASIC or Turbo Basic programming in the form of QB64.

A mutual feature of Unix-like systems, Linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted at scripting, text processing and system configuration and management in full general. Linux distributions back up shell scripts, awk, sed and make. Many programs also have an embedded programming language to support configuring or programming themselves. For case, regular expressions are supported in programs like grep and locate, the traditional Unix MTA Sendmail contains its own Turing complete scripting arrangement, and the avant-garde text editor GNU Emacs is built around a general purpose Lisp interpreter.

Near distributions too include back up for PHP, Perl, Cherry-red, Python and other dynamic languages. While not as common, Linux also supports C# (via Mono), Vala, and Scheme. Guile Scheme acts as an extension language targeting the GNU arrangement utilities, seeking to brand the conventionally small-scale, static, compiled C programs of Unix pattern apace and dynamically extensible via an elegant, functional high-level scripting system; many GNU programs tin can be compiled with optional Guile bindings to this end. A number of Coffee virtual machines and development kits run on Linux, including the original Sun Microsystems JVM (HotSpot), and IBM'southward J2SE RE, every bit well as many open-source projects like Kaffe and JikesRVM.

GNOME and KDE are popular desktop environments and provide a framework for developing applications. These projects are based on the GTK and Qt widget toolkits, respectively, which tin can also be used independently of the larger framework. Both support a wide variety of languages. There are a number of Integrated development environments available including Anjuta, Lawmaking::Blocks, CodeLite, Eclipse, Geany, ActiveState Komodo, KDevelop, Lazarus, MonoDevelop, NetBeans, and Qt Creator, while the long-established editors Vim, nano and Emacs remain pop.[93]

Hardware support [edit]

Linux is ubiquitously found on various types of hardware.

The Linux kernel is a widely ported operating arrangement kernel, bachelor for devices ranging from mobile phones to supercomputers; it runs on a highly diverse range of computer architectures, including the hand-held ARM-based iPAQ and the IBM mainframes System z9 or Arrangement z10.[94] Specialized distributions and kernel forks exist for less mainstream architectures; for case, the ELKS kernel fork can run on Intel 8086 or Intel 80286 16-scrap microprocessors, while the µClinux kernel fork may run on systems without a memory management unit. The kernel as well runs on architectures that were merely e'er intended to use a manufacturer-created operating system, such as Macintosh computers[95] [96] (with both PowerPC and Intel processors), PDAs, video game consoles, portable music players, and mobile phones.

There are several manufacture associations and hardware conferences devoted to maintaining and improving support for diverse hardware under Linux, such as FreedomHEC. Over time, support for dissimilar hardware has improved in Linux, resulting in any off-the-shelf purchase having a "skillful chance" of beingness uniform.[97]

In 2014, a new initiative was launched to automatically collect a database of all tested hardware configurations.[98]

Uses [edit]

[edit]

Many quantitative studies of free/open-source software focus on topics including market share and reliability, with numerous studies specifically examining Linux.[99] The Linux market is growing, and the Linux operating arrangement market size is expected to see a growth of 19.2% by 2027, reaching $15.64 billion, compared to $iii.89 billion in 2019.[100] Analysts and proponents attribute the relative success of Linux to its security, reliability, low cost, and freedom from vendor lock-in.[101] [102]

Desktops and laptops
According to web server statistics (that is, based on the numbers recorded from visits to websites past client devices), as of November 2018[update], the estimated marketplace share of Linux on desktop computers is around 2.i%. In comparison, Microsoft Windows has a market share of effectually 87%, while macOS covers around 9.seven%.[27]
Spider web servers
W3Cook publishes stats that utilise the top 1,000,000 Alexa domains,[103] which as of May 2015[update] estimate that 96.55% of spider web servers run Linux, one.73% run Windows, and one.72% run FreeBSD.[104]
W3Techs publishes stats that utilize the elevation 10,000,000 Alexa domains and the summit 1,000,000 Tranco domains, updated monthly[105] and as of Nov 2020 guess that Linux is used past 39% of the web servers, versus 21.9% existence used by Microsoft Windows.[106] forty.1% used other types of Unix.[107]
IDC's Q1 2007 study indicated that Linux held 12.vii% of the overall server market at that fourth dimension;[108] this approximate was based on the number of Linux servers sold past various companies, and did not include server hardware purchased separately that had Linux installed on it subsequently.
Mobile devices
Android, which is based on the Linux kernel, has become the dominant operating organization for smartphones. During the second quarter of 2013, 79.three% of smartphones sold worldwide used Android.[109] [ needs update ] Android is also a popular operating system for tablets, beingness responsible for more than sixty% of tablet sales as of 2013.[110] According to web server statistics, as of Oct 2021[update] Android has a marketplace share of almost 71%, with iOS holding 28%, and the remaining 1% attributed to diverse niche platforms.[111]
Flick production
For years Linux has been the platform of choice in the picture show industry. The start major picture show produced on Linux servers was 1997's Titanic.[112] [113] Since then major studios including DreamWorks Animation, Pixar, Weta Digital, and Industrial Light & Magic accept migrated to Linux.[114] [115] [116] Co-ordinate to the Linux Movies Group, more than 95% of the servers and desktops at large animation and visual furnishings companies utilize Linux.[117]
Use in regime
Linux distributions have also gained popularity with various local and national governments. News of the Russian armed services creating its own Linux distribution has also surfaced, and has come up to fruition as the G.H.ost Project.[118] The Indian land of Kerala has gone to the extent of mandating that all state high schools run Linux on their computers.[119] [120] China uses Linux exclusively every bit the operating organisation for its Loongson processor family to reach technology independence.[121] In Spain, some regions take developed their own Linux distributions, which are widely used in teaching and official institutions, like gnuLinEx in Extremadura and Guadalinex in Andalusia. France and Germany have also taken steps toward the adoption of Linux.[122] North Korea'south Crimson Star OS, developed since 2002, is based on a version of Fedora Linux.[123]

Copyright, trademark, and naming [edit]

Linux kernel is licensed under the GNU Full general Public License (GPL), version ii. The GPL requires that anyone who distributes software based on source code under this license must brand the originating source code (and any modifications) available to the recipient under the same terms.[124] Other primal components of a typical Linux distribution are likewise mainly licensed nether the GPL, simply they may utilise other licenses; many libraries utilize the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), a more than permissive variant of the GPL, and the X.Org implementation of the Ten Window Arrangement uses the MIT License.

Torvalds states that the Linux kernel will not motility from version ii of the GPL to version 3.[125] [126] He specifically dislikes some provisions in the new license which prohibit the use of the software in digital rights direction.[127] Information technology would also be impractical to obtain permission from all the copyright holders, who number in the thousands.[128]

A 2001 study of Red Chapeau Linux 7.ane plant that this distribution independent 30 million source lines of code.[129] Using the Constructive Toll Model, the study estimated that this distribution required about eight m person-years of evolution time. Co-ordinate to the study, if all this software had been developed by conventional proprietary means, it would accept toll about U.s.$1.57 billion[130] to develop in 2020 in the United states of america.[129] About of the source code (71%) was written in the C programming linguistic communication, but many other languages were used, including C++, Lisp, assembly linguistic communication, Perl, Python, Fortran, and diverse beat scripting languages. Slightly over half of all lines of lawmaking were licensed under the GPL. The Linux kernel itself was 2.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the total.[129]

In a later written report, the aforementioned analysis was performed for Debian version 4.0 (etch, which was released in 2007).[131] This distribution independent shut to 283 million source lines of code, and the study estimated that information technology would have required near seventy 3 1000 man-years and toll U.s.a.$eight.8 billion[130] (in 2020 dollars) to develop by conventional ways.

The proper noun "Linux" is also used for a laundry detergent made past Swiss company Rösch.[132]

In the United States, the proper name Linux is a trademark registered to Linus Torvalds.[10] Initially, nobody registered it, but on Baronial fifteen, 1994, William R. Della Croce, Jr. filed for the trademark Linux, and then demanded royalties from Linux distributors. In 1996, Torvalds and some affected organizations sued him to have the trademark assigned to Torvalds, and, in 1997, the case was settled.[133] The licensing of the trademark has since been handled by the Linux Marker Institute (LMI). Torvalds has stated that he trademarked the name only to prevent someone else from using it. LMI originally charged a nominal sublicensing fee for utilise of the Linux proper name as part of trademarks,[134] merely later changed this in favor of offer a free, perpetual worldwide sublicense.[135]

The Free Software Foundation (FSF) prefers GNU/Linux as the name when referring to the operating system equally a whole, considering information technology considers Linux distributions to be variants of the GNU operating system initiated in 1983 by Richard Stallman, president of the FSF.[16] [17] They explicitly have no issue over the name Android for the Android Os, which is also an operating system based on the Linux kernel, as GNU is not a part of it.

A minority of public figures and software projects other than Stallman and the FSF, notably Debian (which had been sponsored by the FSF up to 1996),[136] also use GNU/Linux when referring to the operating organisation equally a whole.[137] [138] [139] Well-nigh media and common usage, however, refers to this family unit of operating systems simply as Linux, as practice many large Linux distributions (for case, SUSE Linux and Cherry-red Chapeau Enterprise Linux). Past dissimilarity, Linux distributions containing only gratis software employ "GNU/Linux" or merely "GNU", such every bit Trisquel GNU/Linux, Parabola GNU/Linux-libre, BLAG Linux and GNU, and gNewSense.

As of May 2011[update], about eight% to xiii% of a modern Linux distribution is made of GNU components (the range depending on whether GNOME is considered part of GNU), as determined by counting lines of source code making upwards Ubuntu'south "Natty" release; meanwhile, half-dozen% is taken past the Linux kernel, increased to nine% when including its directly dependencies.[140]

See also [edit]

  • Comparison of Linux distributions
  • Comparison of open source and closed source
  • Comparison of operating systems
  • Comparison of X Window Organization desktop environments
  • Criticism of Linux
  • Linux Documentation Project
  • Linux From Scratch
  • Linux Software Map
  • List of Linux distributions
  • List of games released on Linux
  • Listing of operating systems
  • Loadable kernel module
  • Usage share of operating systems
  • Timeline of operating systems

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ GNU is the primary userland used in nearly all Linux distributions.[2] [3] [4] The GNU userland contains system daemons, user applications, the GUI, and various libraries. GNU Core utilities are an essential function of near distributions. Most Linux distributions employ the X Window organization.[5] Other components of the userland, such every bit the widget toolkit, vary with the specific distribution, desktop environment, and user configuration.[six]
  2. ^ BusyBox is an alternative userland used in many embedded Linux distributions. BusyBox replaces most GNU Core utilities.[7] I notable Desktop distribution using BusyBox is Alpine_Linux[viii]
  3. ^ "Linux" trademark is owned by Linus Torvalds[10] and administered by the Linux Mark Plant.

References [edit]

  1. ^ Linux Online (2008). "Linux Logos and Mascots". Archived from the original on August fifteen, 2010. Retrieved August 11, 2009.
  2. ^ "GNU Userland". Archived from the original on March 8, 2016.
  3. ^ "Unix Fundamentals — Organization Administration for Cyborgs". Archived from the original on October v, 2016.
  4. ^ "Operating Systems — Introduction to Information and Advice Engineering". Archived from the original on February 21, 2016.
  5. ^ "The 10 Window System". Archived from the original on January xx, 2016.
  6. ^ "PCLinuxOS Magazine - HTML". Archived from the original on May 15, 2013.
  7. ^ "The Busybox near page". busybox.internet.
  8. ^ "The Tall Linux almost folio". alpinelinux.org.
  9. ^ "The Linux Kernel Athenaeum: Oftentimes asked questions". kernel.org. September 2, 2014. Archived from the original on September 5, 2015. Retrieved September 4, 2015.
  10. ^ a b "U.S. Reg No: 1916230". United States Patent and Trademark Office. Archived from the original on June 24, 2013. Retrieved Apr 1, 2006.
  11. ^ a b "Re: How to pronounce Linux?". Newsgroup: comp.os.linux. April 23, 1992. Usenet: 1992Apr23.123216.22024@klaava.Helsinki.FI. Retrieved January 9, 2007.
  12. ^ Eckert, Jason W. (2012). Linux+ Guide to Linux Certification (3rd ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Cengage Learning. p. 33. ISBN978-1111541538. Archived from the original on May ix, 2013. Retrieved April 14, 2013. The shared commonality of the kernel is what defines a system'due south membership in the Linux family unit; the differing OSS applications that can collaborate with the common kernel are what differentiate Linux distributions.
  13. ^ "Twenty Years of Linux according to Linus Torvalds". ZDNet. April xiii, 2011. Archived from the original on September 19, 2016. Retrieved September 19, 2016.
  14. ^ Linus Benedict Torvalds (October 5, 1991). "Complimentary minix-like kernel sources for 386-AT". Newsgroup: comp.os.minix. Retrieved September 30, 2011.
  15. ^ "What Is Linux: An Overview of the Linux Operating Arrangement". Medium. Retrieved Dec 21, 2019.
  16. ^ a b "GNU/Linux FAQ". Gnu.org. Archived from the original on September 7, 2013. Retrieved September 1, 2013.
  17. ^ a b "Linux and the GNU System". Gnu.org. Archived from the original on March 19, 2017. Retrieved September i, 2013.
  18. ^ DistroWatch. "DistroWatch.com: Put the fun dorsum into computing. Utilise Linux, BSD". distrowatch.com. Archived from the original on April ii, 2013. Retrieved December xxx, 2016.
  19. ^ himanshu, Swapnil. "Best Linux distros of 2016: Something for everyone". CIO. Archived from the original on December 31, 2016. Retrieved February 1, 2022.
  20. ^ "x Meridian Virtually Popular Linux Distributions of 2016". www.tecmint.com. Archived from the original on December xxx, 2016. Retrieved Dec thirty, 2016.
  21. ^ a b "What is Linux?". Opensource.com . Retrieved May 12, 2020.
  22. ^ Barry Levine (Baronial 26, 2013). "Linux' 22th [sic] Altogether Is Commemorated - Subtly - by Creator". Simpler Media Group, Inc. Archived from the original on May 18, 2015. Retrieved May 10, 2015. Originally developed for Intel x86-based PCs, Torvalds' "hobby" has now been released for more hardware platforms than whatever other Os in history.
  23. ^ "Operating System Market Share Worldwide". StatCounter Global Stats.
  24. ^ "NetMarketShare:Mobile/Tablet Operating Organization Market Share". Archived from the original on October half-dozen, 2014.
  25. ^ McPherson, Amanda (December thirteen, 2012). "What a Year for Linux: Please Join u.s.a. in Commemoration". Linux Foundation. Archived from the original on April 17, 2014. Retrieved April 16, 2014.
  26. ^ Linux Devices (November 28, 2006). "Trolltech rolls "complete" Linux smartphone stack". Archived from the original on May 25, 2012. Retrieved January 12, 2017.
  27. ^ a b "Desktop Operating System Market Share". Netmarketshare.com . Retrieved December 23, 2018.
  28. ^ "os-ww-monthly-201510-201510-bar". Archived from the original on November 23, 2015. Retrieved Nov 23, 2015.
  29. ^ Steven J. Vaughan-Nichols. "Chromebook shipments leap by 67 percent". ZDNet. Archived from the original on September 29, 2015. Retrieved September 29, 2015.
  30. ^ "Bone Marketplace Share and Usage Trends". W3Cook.com. Archived from the original on August 6, 2015.
  31. ^ Vaughan-Nichols, Steven J. (2017). "Linux totally dominates supercomputers". ZDNet (published Nov 14, 2017). Archived from the original on Nov 14, 2017. Retrieved October 25, 2018.
  32. ^ Thibodeau, Patrick (2009). "IBM's newest mainframe is all Linux". Computerworld (published December ix, 2009). Archived from the original on November xi, 2016. Retrieved Feb 22, 2009.
  33. ^ a b Lyons, Daniel (March 15, 2005). "Linux rules supercomputers". Forbes. Archived from the original on Feb 24, 2007. Retrieved February 22, 2007.
  34. ^ Eric Brown (March 29, 2019). "Linux continues accelerate in smart TV market". linuxgizmos.com . Retrieved May 15, 2020.
  35. ^ "Sony Open Source Code Distribution Service". Sony Electronics. Archived from the original on October 4, 2011. Retrieved October 8, 2011.
  36. ^ "Sharp Liquid Crystal Boob tube Pedagogy Transmission" (PDF). Sharp Electronics. p. 24. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 11, 2012. Retrieved October 8, 2011.
  37. ^ Steven J. Vaughan-Nichols (Jan iv, 2019). "It's a Linux-powered car world". ZDNet . Retrieved May 15, 2020.
  38. ^ IBM (October 2001). "Linux Scout (WatchPad)". Archived from the original on June 18, 2015. Retrieved June xviii, 2015.
  39. ^ "From World to orbit with Linux and SpaceX | ZDNet". www.zdnet.com.
  40. ^ Ritchie, D.M. (October 1984), "The UNIX System: The Development of the UNIX Time-sharing Arrangement", AT&T Bell Laboratories Technical Journal, 63 (viii): 1577, doi:x.1002/j.1538-7305.1984.tb00054.x, Still, UNIX was born in 1969 ...
  41. ^ Meeker, Heather (September 21, 2017). "Open source licensing: What every technologist should know". Opensource.com. Archived from the original on September 24, 2017. Retrieved September 24, 2017.
  42. ^ "Nigh the GNU Project – Initial Announcement". Gnu.org. June 23, 2008. Archived from the original on March v, 2009. Retrieved March ix, 2009.
  43. ^ Christopher Tozzi (Baronial 23, 2016). "Open Source History: Why Did Linux Succeed?". Archived from the original on August 17, 2017. Retrieved Baronial 17, 2017.
  44. ^ a b "MINIX is now available under the BSD license". minix1.woodhull.com. April 9, 2000. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016.
  45. ^ "Linus vs. Tanenbaum argue". Archived from the original on October 3, 2012. Retrieved February 19, 2014.
  46. ^ Linksvayer, Mike (1993). "The Choice of a GNU Generation – An Interview With Linus Torvalds". Meta magazine. Archived from the original on February 25, 2009. Retrieved January 20, 2009.
  47. ^ Torvalds, Linus. "What would you like to see well-nigh in minix?". Newsgroup: comp.os.minix. Usenet: 1991Aug25.205708.9541@klaava.Helsinki.FI. Retrieved September 9, 2006.
  48. ^ Linus Torvalds (October 14, 1992). "Craven and egg: How was the first linux gcc binary created??". Newsgroup: comp.os.minix. Usenet: 1992Oct12.100843.26287@klaava.Helsinki.FI. Retrieved August 17, 2013.
  49. ^ Torvalds, Linus (January 5, 1992). "Release notes for Linux v0.12". Linux Kernel Archives. Archived from the original on August 19, 2007. Retrieved July 23, 2007. The Linux copyright will change: I've had a couple of requests to make information technology compatible with the GNU copyleft, removing the "you may not distribute it for coin" condition. I agree. I propose that the copyright be changed and then that it confirms to GNU ─ pending approving of the persons who accept helped write code. I assume this is going to exist no problem for everyone: If you have grievances ("I wrote that code assuming the copyright would stay the same") mail me. Otherwise, The GNU copyleft takes effect since the kickoff of Feb. If you lot do non know the gist of the GNU copyright ─ read information technology.
  50. ^ "Overview of the GNU System". Gnu.org. Archived from the original on Feb 28, 2009. Retrieved March 9, 2009.
  51. ^ a b Torvalds, Linus and Diamond, David, Just for Fun: The Story of an Adventitious Revolutionary, 2001, ISBN 0-06-662072-4
  52. ^ Torvalds, Linus (March 1994). "Alphabetize of /pub/linux/kernel/SillySounds". Archived from the original on Oct 8, 2009. Retrieved August 3, 2009.
  53. ^ Garfinkel, Simson; Spafford, Gene; Schwartz, Alan (2003). Practical UNIX and Internet Security. O'Reilly. p. 21.
  54. ^ Santhanam, Anand; Vishal Kulkarni (March 1, 2002). "Linux system development on an embedded device". DeveloperWorks. IBM. Archived from the original on March 29, 2007. Retrieved July 26, 2007.
  55. ^ Galli, Peter (August 8, 2007). "Vista Aiding Linux Desktop, Strategist Says". eWEEK. Ziff Davis Enterprise Inc. Archived from the original on July nine, 2009. Retrieved Nov 19, 2007.
  56. ^ Paul, Ryan (September 3, 2007). "Linux market place share set to surpass Win 98, Bone X however ahead of Vista". Ars Technica. Ars Technica, LLC. Archived from the original on November 16, 2007. Retrieved November 19, 2007.
  57. ^ Beer, Stan (January 23, 2007). "Vista to play second fiddle to XP until 2009: Gartner". iTWire. iTWire. Archived from the original on December iii, 2008. Retrieved Nov xix, 2007.
  58. ^ "Operating Organization Marketshare for Twelvemonth 2007". Market Share. Net Applications. November 19, 2007. Archived from the original on June 24, 2013. Retrieved November xix, 2007.
  59. ^ "Vista slowly continues its growth; Linux more than aggressive than Mac OS during the summertime". XiTiMonitor. AT Net/XiTi.com. September 24, 2007. Archived from the original on December xiv, 2007. Retrieved November nineteen, 2007.
  60. ^ "Global Spider web Stats". W3Counter. Awio Web Services LLC. November x, 2007. Archived from the original on June 28, 2012. Retrieved November 19, 2007.
  61. ^ "June 2004 Zeitgeist". Google Press Center. Google Inc. August 12, 2004. Archived from the original on July 11, 2011. Retrieved November nineteen, 2007.
  62. ^ McMillan, Robert (Oct 10, 2003). "IBM, Brazilian government launch Linux endeavour". www.infoworld.com. IDG News Service. Archived from the original on March xv, 2015. Retrieved February xvi, 2015.
  63. ^ "Near The states - The Linux Foundation". Retrieved October one, 2018.
  64. ^ "The Free Software Foundation Management". Archived from the original on November eleven, 2011. Retrieved November x, 2011.
  65. ^ "Costless software is a matter of liberty, non cost — Free Software Foundation — working together for costless software". Fsf.org. Archived from the original on July 14, 2012. Retrieved July 12, 2012.
  66. ^ Email correspondence on the Linux Kernel evolution mailing list Linus Torvalds (November thirty, 2001). "Re: Coding style, a non-issue". kernel.org.
  67. ^ Raymond, Eric S. (2001). O'Reilly, Tim (ed.). The Cathedral and the Bazaar: Musings on Linux and Open Source by an Adventitious Revolutionary (Second ed.). O'Reilly & Associates. p. 16. ISBN0-596-00108-8.
  68. ^ "Yous have to design it you cannot asymptotically reach Security." Cantrill 2017
  69. ^ The Cantrill Strikes Dorsum | BSD Now 117. Jupiter Broadcasting. November 26, 2015. Archived from the original on December 14, 2020. Retrieved September seven, 2021 – via YouTube.
  70. ^ "Why is Linux chosen a monolithic kernel?". stackoverflow.com. 2009. Archived from the original on October 17, 2013. Retrieved October 16, 2013.
  71. ^ a b "Anatomy of a Linux Arrangement" (PDF). O'Reilly. July 23–26, 2001. Retrieved October 10, 2018.
  72. ^ "Admin Guide README". git.kernel.org.
  73. ^ M. Tim Jones (May 31, 2006). "Inside the Linux kicking process". IBM Developer Works. Archived from the original on October 17, 2013. Retrieved Oct 16, 2013.
  74. ^ Jake Edge (June 8, 2013). "The Wayland Situation: Facts About X vs. Wayland (Phoronix)". LWN.net. Archived from the original on October 22, 2013. Retrieved October xi, 2013.
  75. ^ Diener, Derrik (December 6, 2016). "What Is Wayland and What Does It Ways for Linux Users". world wide web.maketecheasier.com/ . Retrieved February 14, 2021.
  76. ^ "Linux Telly: Television receiver with Linux". linuxtv.org. Archived from the original on November 6, 2013. Retrieved October 16, 2013.
  77. ^ Jonathan Corbet (October 11, 2006). "The Video4Linux2 API: an introduction". LWN.net. Archived from the original on October 7, 2013. Retrieved October sixteen, 2013.
  78. ^ "Office I. Video for Linux Two API Specification". Chapter 7. Changes. linuxtv.org. Archived from the original on October 17, 2013. Retrieved October 16, 2013.
  79. ^ Operating System Marketplace Share (November 2009). "Operating Organisation Marketplace Share". Archived from the original on January 25, 2010. Retrieved December 11, 2009.
  80. ^ "gnu.org". www.gnu.org . Retrieved May 12, 2020.
  81. ^ "POSIX.1 (FIPS 151-ii) Certification". Archived from the original on Feb 26, 2012.
  82. ^ "How source code compatible is Debian with other Unix systems?". Debian FAQ. the Debian project. Archived from the original on October 16, 2011.
  83. ^ Eissfeldt, Heiko (Baronial 1, 1996). "Certifying Linux". Linux Periodical. Archived from the original on April 4, 2016.
  84. ^ "The Debian GNU/Linux FAQ – Compatibility issues". Archived from the original on Oct 10, 2011. Retrieved September 17, 2011.
  85. ^
  86. ^ "Get Fedora". getfedora.org . Retrieved Feb 24, 2020.
  87. ^ pattern, Cynthia Sanchez: forepart-end and UI, Zvezdana Marjanovic: graphic. "The makers' option for sysadmins, developers and desktop users". openSUSE . Retrieved February 24, 2020.
  88. ^ Linux Format. "Linux Format DVD contents". Archived from the original on August viii, 2008. Retrieved Jan 17, 2008.
  89. ^ linux-magazine.com. "Current Issue". Archived from the original on January ten, 2008. Retrieved January 17, 2008.
  90. ^ "State of Linux Kernel Evolution 2017". Linux Foundation . Retrieved November 14, 2021.
  91. ^ "Country of Linux Kernel Development 2017". Linux Foundation . Retrieved November 14, 2021.
  92. ^ "gfortran — the GNU Fortran compiler, role of GCC". GNU GCC . Retrieved May 3, 2020.
  93. ^ Brockmeier, Joe. "A survey of Linux Web development tools". Archived from the original on October 19, 2006. Retrieved December sixteen, 2006.
  94. ^ Advani, Prakash (Feb 8, 2004). "If I could re-write Linux". freeos.com. Archived from the original on Jan 23, 2007. Retrieved January 23, 2007.
  95. ^ Das, Ankush (January 21, 2021). "Finally! Linux Runs Gracefully On Apple tree M1 Chip". It's FOSS News . Retrieved November 13, 2021.
  96. ^ Jimenez, Jorge (October eight, 2021). "Developers finally go Linux running on an Apple M1-powered Mac". PC Gamer . Retrieved Nov thirteen, 2021.
  97. ^ Bruce Byfield (August 14, 2007). "Is my hardware Linux-uniform? Find out hither". Linux.com. Archived from the original on September 5, 2015. Retrieved September 4, 2015.
  98. ^ "Linux Hardware". Linux Hardware Projection. Retrieved June 26, 2020.
  99. ^ Wheeler, David A. "Why Open Source Software/Free Software (OSS/FS)? Expect at the Numbers!". Archived from the original on Apr v, 2006. Retrieved April 1, 2006.
  100. ^ "Linux Operating Organisation Market Size, Share and Forecast [2020-2027]". www.fortunebusinessinsights.com . Retrieved November 12, 2021.
  101. ^ "The rise and rise of Linux". Computer Associates International. Oct x, 2005. Archived from the original on February 17, 2007.
  102. ^ Jeffrey Southward. Smith. "Why customers are flocking to Linux". IBM. Archived from the original on June 3, 2008.
  103. ^ "W3Cook FAQ". W3Cook.com. Archived from the original on June 27, 2015. Retrieved June 30, 2015.
  104. ^ "Bone Marketplace Share and Usage Trends". W3Cook.com. Archived from the original on August 6, 2015. Retrieved June 30, 2015.
  105. ^ "Technologies Overview - methodology information". W3Techs.com . Retrieved June 30, 2015.
  106. ^ "Linux vs. Windows usage statistics, November 2021". w3techs.com . Retrieved November 14, 2021.
  107. ^ "Usage Statistics and Market Share of Unix for Websites, November 2021". w3techs.com . Retrieved Nov fourteen, 2021.
  108. ^ "─ IDC Q1 2007 study". Linux-lookout.com. May 29, 2007. Archived from the original on January 17, 2010. Retrieved March 9, 2009.
  109. ^ "Android Nears 80% Market place Share In Global Smartphone Shipments, As iOS And BlackBerry Share Slides, Per IDC". Archived from the original on July 5, 2017.
  110. ^ Egham (March 3, 2014). "Gartner Says Worldwide Tablet Sales Grew 68 Percent in 2013, With Android Capturing 62 Percent of the Market". Archived from the original on April 17, 2014. Retrieved June thirteen, 2014.
  111. ^ "Mobile/Tablet Operating System Market place Share". Netmarketshare.com. Archived from the original on June 28, 2021. Retrieved Oct 14, 2021.
  112. ^ Strauss, Daryll. "Linux Helps Bring Titanic to Life". Archived from the original on January 12, 2012. Retrieved July 28, 2011.
  113. ^ Rowe, Robin. "Linux and Star Trek". Archived from the original on July 12, 2011. Retrieved July 28, 2011.
  114. ^ "Industry of Change: Linux Storms Hollywood". Archived from the original on Apr xi, 2009. Retrieved March xi, 2009.
  115. ^ "Tux with Shades, Linux in Hollywood". Retrieved March eleven, 2009.
  116. ^ "Weta Digital – Jobs". Archived from the original on December 30, 2010. Retrieved November 17, 2010.
  117. ^ "LinuxMovies.org – Advancing Linux Motility Picture Technology". Archived from the original on March 1, 2012. Retrieved March 16, 2012.
  118. ^ "LV: Minister: "Open standards amend efficiency and transparency"". Archived from the original on August ix, 2011. Retrieved February 21, 2009.
  119. ^ "Linux Spreads its Wings in India". Archived from the original on July 28, 2011. Retrieved February 21, 2009.
  120. ^ "Kerala shuts windows, schools to employ merely Linux". March 4, 2008. Archived from the original on May 15, 2011. Retrieved June 22, 2009.
  121. ^ "Mainland china's Microprocessor Dilemma". Microprocessor Written report. Archived from the original on September xviii, 2009. Retrieved April fifteen, 2009.
  122. ^ Krane, Jim (November xxx, 2001). "Some countries are choosing Linux systems over Microsoft". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Archived from the original on March 15, 2012. Retrieved February 21, 2009.
  123. ^ "North korea's 'paranoid' computer operating system revealed". The Guardian. December 27, 2015. Archived from the original on December 31, 2015. Retrieved Dec 31, 2015.
  124. ^ "GNU General Public License, version 2". GNU Project. June two, 1991. Archived from the original on December seven, 2013. Retrieved December 5, 2013.
  125. ^ Torvalds, Linus (January 26, 2006). "Re: GPL V3 and Linux ─ Expressionless Copyright Holders". Linux Kernel Mailing List. Archived from the original on July 9, 2014.
  126. ^ Torvalds, Linus (September 25, 2006). "Re: GPLv3 Position Statement". Linux Kernel Mailing List. Archived from the original on April 22, 2014.
  127. ^ Brett Smith (July 29, 2013). "Neutralizing Laws That Prohibit Gratuitous Software — Only Not Forbidding DRM". A Quick Guide to GPLv3. GNU Project. Archived from the original on December 1, 2013. Retrieved December 5, 2013.
  128. ^ "Keeping an Eye on the Penguin". Linux-watch.com. Feb 7, 2006. Archived from the original on January 3, 2013. Retrieved November ix, 2010.
  129. ^ a b c Wheeler, David A (July 29, 2002). "More Than a Gigabuck: Estimating GNU/Linux's Size". Archived from the original on Apr 21, 2006. Retrieved May 11, 2006.
  130. ^ a b Johnston, Louis; Williamson, Samuel H. (2022). "What Was the U.Southward. Gross domestic product Then?". MeasuringWorth . Retrieved February 12, 2022. U.s. Gdp deflator figures follow the Measuring Worth series.
  131. ^ Amor, Juan José; et al. (June 17, 2007). "Measuring Etch: the size of Debian 4.0". Archived from the original on July 28, 2014. Retrieved September 16, 2007.
  132. ^ "There Is a Linux Detergent Out There and Information technology's Trademarked". Linux.com. June 19, 2015. Archived from the original on June 24, 2015. Retrieved January 31, 2016.
  133. ^ "Linux Timeline". Linux Journal. May 31, 2006. Archived from the original on February 3, 2013.
  134. ^ Neil McAllister (September 5, 2005). "Linus gets tough on Linux trademark". InfoWorld. Archived from the original on April 12, 2008. Retrieved February 24, 2008.
  135. ^ "Linux Mark Institute". Archived from the original on February 13, 2008. Retrieved Feb 24, 2008. LMI has restructured its sublicensing program. Our new sublicense agreement is: Free – approved sublicense holders pay no fees; Perpetual – sublicense terminates only in breach of the agreement or when your arrangement ceases to use its mark; Worldwide – one sublicense covers your apply of the mark anywhere in the globe
  136. ^ Richard Stallman (April 28, 1996). "The FSF is no longer sponsoring Debian". tech-insider.org. Archived from the original on February 21, 2014. Retrieved February 8, 2014.
  137. ^ "TiVo ─ GNU/Linux Source Code". Archived from the original on May 19, 2007. Retrieved December 12, 2006.
  138. ^ "About Debian". debian.org. Dec eight, 2013. Archived from the original on Jan 23, 2014. Retrieved January 30, 2014.
  139. ^ Andrew D. Balsa; et al. (October 17, 2009). "The linux-kernel mailing listing FAQ". vger.kernel.org. Archived from the original on October 1, 2012. Retrieved June 13, 2013. ...nosotros accept tried to apply the word "Linux" or the expression "Linux kernel" to designate the kernel, and GNU/Linux to designate the entire trunk of GNU/GPL'ed Bone software,... ...many people forget that the linux kernel mailing list is a forum for discussion of kernel-related matters, not GNU/Linux in full general...
  140. ^ Côrte-Existent, Pedro (May 31, 2011). "How much GNU is at that place in GNU/Linux?". Split Perspective. Archived from the original on February vii, 2014. Retrieved Jan 28, 2014. (self-published information)

External links [edit]

  • Linux at Curlie
  • Graphical map of Linux Internals
  • Linux kernel website and archives
  • The History of Linux in GIT Repository Format 1992–2010

scottthinger.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux

0 Response to "Chineese Website Containing Guide to Unix Using Linux Review Questions Answers"

Postar um comentário

Assinar: Postar comentários (Atom)

Iklan Atas Artikel

Iklan Tengah Artikel 1

Iklan Tengah Artikel 2

Iklan Bawah Artikel